Elias Chen commented on a stock · 13 hours ago

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Rescue Freud

Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, has long been known to everyone. But the story of his escape from the clutches of the Nazis in his later years, when he was almost dying, is rarely mentioned.

In 1938, Nazi Germany officially annexed Austria. Freud was one of the most famous figures in Vienna, the capital of Austria at the time. As a Jew and the founder of a theory hated by the Nazis, he naturally became a target of the Gestapo. At that time, Freud was regarded as a master who saw through the darkness of human nature and had a series of keen observations and comments on the development of evil forces. Unfortunately, he saw others and the world clearly, but showed some wishful thinking and procrastination about his own situation, such as always thinking that Austria would eventually be safe and sound and he would escape. Some analysts said that he had been suffering from cancer for many years and was not energetic. He probably knew that he had not much time left. At the same time, he loved Vienna, where he had made his life's career, and did not want to die anywhere else. These factors led him to not want to move after the Gestapo attacked his office and residence.

What finally prompted him to decide to flee was his youngest daughter Anna. Anna was in her early forties at the time and had a long life ahead of her. Freud also knew that this little daughter would never leave him under any circumstances. After the Gestapo broke in, Anna once asked Freud whether the whole family should commit suicide. Freud refused.

In such a world, it was already difficult to arrange an escape. In the end, it was the interaction of money and influence. The Nazis who ruled Austria tried their best to blackmail the wealthy Jews who wanted to escape. Freud, who was dying, was obviously not a person of great strategic significance. As a result, it was Napoleon's great-niece who was far away in France who provided a large sum of money. The US ambassador to France, as Freud's former patient, not only paid the money, but also reminded the Nazi authorities: How to treat Freud, the US government will pay serious attention. After a series of complicated operations, the Freud family was allowed to escape. They boarded the train, crossed Germany, and entered France in early June, thus gaining freedom. At this time, Freud only had fifteen months left to live...

A historian lamented: In the first few years of the 20th century, Freud and Hitler were both in Vienna, but their identities were completely different. Freud was a god-like psychiatrist and a top wealthy person. Hitler was a homeless person living on the streets. Some people even imagined that the two might have met, and Freud might have looked at the poor Hitler and gave him a few coins. Unexpectedly, thirty years later, the world turned upside down. That homeless man made the world tremble under his feet. That noble doctor, with his last breath, fled from his hometown that he was reluctant to leave until his death...

It is worth noting that the countries of exile of German scholars were extremely scattered. 31% of them chose the United States as the first step, 21% chose France, 14% chose the United Kingdom, 11% chose Switzerland, 6% chose Italy, and 6% chose Palestine, which were also the most concentrated choices.

Exile is bound to require a painful adaptation process. These German exiled scholars originally had a respected social status and stable economic conditions. After exile in a foreign country, they had to face language barriers, psychological gaps, and the sadness of exiles.

Moreover, because Germany was once the center of world culture and science, intellectuals were respected by the world, and the psychological gap after exile was even greater.

This adaptation period also influenced the choices of many people. For example, many German exiled scholars chose Switzerland at first because of the consistency of language. Scholars who chose the United States generally have a good foundation in English.

In addition, because the fields of natural sciences and medicine are international and practical, and Germany has been a world leader in these two fields before 1933, exiled scholars in these two disciplines are more easily accepted. Interestingly, because of the economic crisis, economists have also become darlings. In contrast, scholars in the humanities, because of their emphasis on nationality, have narrower options after exile.

The exile of scholars is different from that of ordinary refugees. They will consider their future university jobs. From this point of view, although France, Switzerland, Italy and other continental European countries are geographically close, they are not the best choice, because the universities in these countries are too closed and it is difficult to provide long-term jobs for German exiled scholars. What's more, in the near future, these countries will fall one after another. For German exiled scholars, these countries are just transit stations.

In the 1930s, British universities were in a period of stagnation in enrollment, and the educational concept of "creating social elites" was inconsistent with Germany's thinking of advocating scientific research in the Weimar era. It is precisely because of this that although Britain was the first country to express sympathy and extend a helping hand to German scholars, it was still unable to provide enough long-term jobs for German exiled scholars due to the limitations of the university system. Therefore, Britain is just a transit station for German exiled scholars.

In contrast, the American university system is more suitable for accepting German exiled scholars. At that time, colleges and universities in the United States were expanding rapidly, the number of college students and graduate students was growing rapidly, and university education was also moving from elite education to universal education. Compared with continental European countries and the United Kingdom, the United States could provide more positions suitable for German exiled scholars.

Of course, the United States also had disadvantages for exiled scholars. For example, many disciplines (such as law) were completely pragmatic, with professional qualification examinations as the ultimate goal, which made it difficult for German scholars who were accustomed to scientific research to adapt.

In addition, the Germans' doubts about American culture also made many exiled scholars not put the United States first. Although the openness of American universities at that time was commendable, excessive pragmatism and materialism were obviously inconsistent with the consistent values of German scholars.

But the initiative of the Americans reversed this situation. As early as 1933, after Germany promulgated the "Re-establishment of Public Officials Law", the United States was extremely concerned about the incidents of German universities suppressing and dismissing scholars, and public opinion was overwhelmingly sympathetic. The American academic community also quickly established the Emergency Committee for Assistance to Foreign Exiled Scholars (later renamed the Emergency Committee for Assistance to German Exiled Scholars), proposing to "save those scholars who were expelled from European universities due to Nazi tyranny." Many American scholars clearly realized that Germany's cultural purge was actually an opportunity for the development of the American scientific community. What is valuable is that these American scholars did not think of "not letting outsiders take away their jobs", but actively advised the government and various institutions, hoping to fully accept German scholars.

However, in actual operation, the United States did not do a good job in accepting German exiled scholars. First of all, although colleges and universities were expanding, the resettlement of exiled scholars was not very good, and the number of resettled scholars was not large. More importantly, in the years between the two world wars, isolationism prevailed in the United States, and most Americans opposed loosening immigration quotas. Therefore, the US government was also conservative about accepting European refugees, which affected the acceptance of German exiled scholars by American universities. The phenomenon of anti-Semitism also existed in American universities, which also made German exiled scholars feel the chill.

At this critical moment, the Rockefeller Foundation stepped forward. This is a very magical foundation. It began to pay attention to German scholars as early as the 1920s, when Germany was still in the relaxed atmosphere of the Weimar Republic.

The Rockefeller Company invested a huge amount of money in this foundation. It initially fully funded the medical field, and gradually began to pay attention to the social science field after 1920, and funded a large number of scientific research projects in Germany. When Hitler came to power and German universities dismissed scholars on a large scale, the Rockefeller Foundation also began to debate future options.

Initially, some people in the foundation were also influenced by anti-Semitism and misjudged the situation in Germany, thinking that this was just a short-term measure. But soon the foundation clarified its direction and withdrew funds from the previous German social science research project and changed it to a rescue plan for German exiled scholars.

Because anti-Semitism still existed in domestic universities in the United States at that time, immigration quotas were not relaxed, and universities could not provide many positions, so the Rockefeller Foundation chose a workaround and used aid funds to temporarily place some exiled scholars in Europe.

At the same time, the Emergency Committee for Assisting Foreign Exiled Scholars also played a key role, assuming the role of a communication platform in the United States, and gradually dispelling the doubts of universities about accepting German exiled scholars.

The University in Exile established by the New School for Social Research in New York received the most aid from the Rockefeller Foundation, totaling $540,000, and successfully saved 180 European exiled scholars. The Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton University is committed to accepting exiled scholars in the field of natural sciences. Columbia University accepted the Institute for Social Research of the University of Frankfurt as a whole... Of course, this centralized acceptance is only for a few. The Rockefeller Foundation and the Emergency Committee for Assisting Foreign Exiled Scholars consciously placed exiled scholars in different universities, with no more than three in each university, which reduced the pressure and hostility of universities.

Later, the deterioration of the situation in Europe caused American society to gradually abandon isolationism and begin to accept more refugees, including scholars. At the same time, because European countries fell in the war one after another, many exiled scholars who did not initially choose the United States flowed to the United States from Britain, France, Switzerland, Italy and other countries.

The German exiled scholars who had previously arrived in the United States and successfully settled down proved their abilities with outstanding academic achievements, and also made more Americans understand that accepting German exiled scholars is not only humanitarian, but also a major opportunity for the development of the United States.

As a result, more and more foundations joined the ranks, and religious organizations, charitable organizations, and even Hollywood and other film companies with a high Jewish population all contributed to the rescue of German exiled scholars. Moreover, the assistance was soon not limited to scholars, but also included lawyers, doctors, engineers, media people, and artists.

By 1945, the United States became the country that accepted the most Jewish refugees, and also the country that accepted the most German exiled scholars and even intellectuals.

Data shows that in addition to exiled scholars, the United States also accepted 811 legal workers, 2,352 doctors, 682 journalists, 645 engineers, 465 musicians, 296 plastic artists, and 1,281 professionals from other cultural fields. In Germany and Austria alone, more than 60% of the exiled intellectuals eventually immigrated to the United States. The United States undoubtedly became the biggest beneficiary of this high-quality group exodus.

This was an unprecedented high-quality group exodus in human history, but it was not the last. More than a decade later, before and after the construction of the Berlin Wall, intellectuals in East Germany and even Eastern Europe also staged a similar exodus.

There is an intriguing historical dialogue - Nobel Prize winner and physicist Max von Raul once stood up to protest against the Nazis, believing that cultural cleansing had caused irreparable damage to German science, and Hitler's response was like a madman. He said: "Even if it is for science, our national policy will not be revoked or changed. If the expulsion of Jewish scientists means the destruction of modern German science, then let us implement our national policy in the future, without science!" In this crazy answer, Germany's tragedy was already doomed. Between 1933 and 1934, German universities dismissed 1,145 teachers. In the year after the promulgation of the Nuremberg Laws in 1935, nearly 500 university teachers were dismissed. In these two waves of dismissals, 497 natural science scholars (including 165 in the field of chemistry and 124 in the field of physics), 459 medical scholars, 392 social science scholars (including 148 economists, 112 jurists, 53 historians, 40 sociologists, 27 psychologists, and 12 educators), and 291 humanities scholars were dismissed.

Between 1937 and 1938, German universities dismissed more than 160 university teachers who "had non-German spouses or spouses of different types". At this time, the proportion of dismissed German university teachers had reached 39%, of which economists and other social scientists had lost 47%. In 1938, Nazi Germany annexed Austria and dismissed more than 400 Austrian university teachers with Jewish ancestry or Jewish spouses.

The most ridiculous thing is that the vacant university teaching positions were occupied by those unlearned bureaucrats in the Nazi Party, and they became the most powerful people in the school. What can they teach students?

For scholars of Jewish descent, they could basically no longer find jobs in Nazi Germany and could only rely on temporary funding from Jewish communities to barely survive. Moreover, the situation became more and more urgent day by day, and the only way out was to go into exile abroad, otherwise what awaited them were concentration camps and gas chambers.

In fact, as early as 1933, some German scholars chose to go into exile. But at that time, most people still could not see through the current situation, and they chose to stay in Germany, hoping that the situation would ease. But Hitler obviously did not give them such an opportunity, so more and more people embarked on the road of exile, and reached a climax after the "Imperial Crystal Night" in 1938.

Data shows that among the 2,200 scholars expelled from Germany and Austria, more than 1,400 chose to go into exile, and 200 to 300 died naturally due to illness and other reasons. The remaining more than 500 people were mostly sent to the Terezin concentration camp in the Czech Republic after 1942 and were killed together with Jewish intellectuals from various European countries.

On April 7, 1933, Hitler promulgated the "Civil Service Re-establishment Law", announcing the dismissal of all civil servants who were inconsistent with the principles of Nazism. This "integration" movement also affected German universities and became a cultural cleansing to expel Jewish intellectuals.

This is also the dirtiest and most shameful scene in German cultural history, because when a large number of intellectuals were suppressed and persecuted, German universities, which should have an independent spirit, collectively pledged allegiance to Hitler. Even decades later, the Germans still felt ashamed of this scene and regarded it as a major sign of the country's fall.

What followed was the book burning incident. In Bebel Square in Berlin, a large number of German classics were burned, including authors such as Heine, Preuss, Kafka, Einstein, Freud, Hesse, Thomas Mann, Heinrich Mann and Barlach, and nearly 3,000 books were banned from then on.